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Маньчжуры в России В Российскую империю по Айгунскому договору 1858 года вошли территории, населенные маньчжурами, на левом берегу Амура от реки Зеи до деревни Хормолдзин. Договор гарантировал им право жить «вечно на прежних местах их жительства» и фактическую экстерриториальность, так как маньчжуры оставались под юрисдикцией Цинского правительства. При первом появлении русских на реках Зея и Амур (экспедиция Пояркова 1643—1644 гг.) манчжуров на берегах этих рек не было. Не было их и на 500—600 км южнее, как и китайцев, так как Цинское правительство запрещало этническим китайцам проникать в Маньчжурию. 俄罗斯的满洲人是依据“人随地归”的原则,基于1858年由俄罗斯帝国与大清帝国签订的《瑷珲条约》(俄罗斯称呼作《阿贡条约》,Айгунский Договор)而被清朝划归俄罗斯的地域、亦即从黑龙江以北约60万平方公里领土上定居的满洲人成为了俄罗斯国民。条约保证这些满洲人“在其旧居永远生活的权利和事实上的治外法权,因为满族仍是清政府管辖下的”。 根据《瑷珲条约》的内容:“黑龙江、松花江左岸,由额尔古讷河至松花江海口,作为俄罗斯国所属之地;右岸顺江流至乌苏里河,作为大清国所属之地”;而“黑龙江左岸,由精奇里河以南至谿尔莫勒津屯,原住之满洲人等,照旧准其各在所住屯中永远居住,仍著满洲国大臣官员管理,俄罗斯人等和好,不得侵犯”。 但在1900年庚子俄难他们与居住在俄罗斯的汉人一样被屠杀。
Маньчжуры в России В Российскую империю по Айгунскому договору 1858 года вошли территории, населенные маньчжурами, на левом берегу Амура от реки Зеи до деревни Хормолдзин. Договор гарантировал им право жить «вечно на прежних местах их жительства» и фактическую экстерриториальность, так как маньчжуры оставались под юрисдикцией Цинского правительства. При первом появлении русских на реках Зея и Амур (экспедиция Пояркова 1643—1644 гг.) манчжуров на берегах этих рек не было. Не было их и на 500—600 км южнее, как и китайцев, так как Цинское правительство запрещало этническим китайцам проникать в Маньчжурию. 俄罗斯的满洲人是依据“人随地归”的原则,基于1858年由俄罗斯帝国与大清帝国签订的《瑷珲条约》(俄罗斯称呼作《阿贡条约》,Айгунскому договору)而被清朝划归俄罗斯的地域、亦即从黑龙江以北约60万平方公里领土上定居的满洲人成为了俄罗斯国民。条约保证这些满洲人“在其旧居永远生活的权利和事实上的治外法权,因为满族仍是清政府管辖下的”。 根据《瑷珲条约》的内容:“黑龙江、松花江左岸,由额尔古讷河至松花江海口,作为俄罗斯国所属之地;右岸顺江流至乌苏里河,作为大清国所属之地”;而“黑龙江左岸,由精奇里河以南至谿尔莫勒津屯,原住之满洲人等,照旧准其各在所住屯中永远居住,仍著满洲国大臣官员管理,俄罗斯人等和好,不得侵犯”。 但在1900年庚子俄难他们与居住在俄罗斯的汉人一样被屠杀。
Russian Nouns and cases Nominal declension involves six cases – nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, and prepositional – in two numbers (singular and plural), and absolutely obeying grammatical gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter). Up to ten additional cases are identified in linguistics textbooks,[1][2][3] although all of them are either incomplete (do not apply to all nouns) or degenerate (appear identical to one of the six main cases) – the most recognized additional cases are locative, partitive and vocative. Old Russian also had a third number, the dual, but it has been lost except for its use in the nominative and accusative cases with the numbers two, three, and four (e.g. два стула "two chairs"), where it is now reanalyzed as genitive singular. More often than in many other Indo-European languages, Russian noun cases may supplant the use of prepositions entirely.[4] Furthermore, every preposition is exclusively used with a particular case (or cases). Their usage can be summarised as:[5] nominative (имени́тельный): main subject; default case to use outside sentences (dictionary entries, signs, etc.); prepositions: за '(what) kind of?'; в: 'join the ranks of' (with pl. noun only); accusative (вини́тельный): direct object; some time expressions; prepositions indicating motion: в 'into, in(ward)', на 'onto (the top of)', за 'behind, after', под 'under'; other prepositions: про 'about', через 'over', сквозь 'through'; genitive (роди́тельный): possession – 'of' (genitive noun); numerals and quantifiers; negated verbs (which take direct objects in Accusative) to indicate total absence; some time expressions; prepositions: без 'without', вместо 'instead of', возле 'near', вокруг 'around', впереди 'ahead of', для 'for', до 'before', из 'from', из-за 'because of, from behind', от 'from', кроме 'except for', мимо 'past by', около 'near', после 'after', против 'against, opposite', среди 'among', у 'by', близ 'near', вдоль 'along', вне 'out of, outside', внутри 'inside'; verbs: бояться 'afraid of', достигать 'reach', избегать 'avoid'; adjectives: полный 'full of' (genitive noun); dative (да́тельный): indirect object – 'to' (dative noun); some time expressions; impersonal clauses: мне холодно – 'I am cold', lit. "to_me (is) cold"; age statements: мне двадцать лет – 'I am 20 (years old)', lit. 'to_me (is) 20 years'; prepositions: по 'on', к 'to(wards)', благодаря 'thanks to'; auxiliaries: нужно or надо 'need/must (to)', можно 'allowed', нельзя 'forbidden'; verbs: верить 'believe', помочь 'help', советовать 'advise', звонить 'call', удивить(ся) 'amaze (self)'; instrumental (твори́тельный): instrument used in the action or means by which action is carried out – 'by' (I. noun); logical subject of passive clause: письмо написано Иваном – 'the letter was written by Ivan'; secondary direct object: его считают студентом – 'he is considered (to be) a student'; durational time expressions; verbs: интересовать(ся) 'interest (to be interested in)', пользоваться 'use', занимать(ся) 'occupy (to be preoccupied with)'; associates of connective verbs: быть 'be', стать 'became', остаться 'remain', казаться 'appear to be', оказаться 'turn out to be'; prepositions of position: за 'behind', перед 'in front of', над 'above', под 'below', между 'between', (вместе) с '(together) with'; adjective: довольный 'pleased by'; prepositional (предло́жный): prepositions of place: в 'inside', на 'on (top of)'; other prepositions: о 'about', при 'by/of/with';
格 (语法) 格(拉丁语:casus,英语:case),格位,狭义上称为语法格,在格语法中称为表层格,是名词、代词、分词、数词或形容词等词类当中,反映其在短语、从句或句子中所起语法功能的一种特定语法范畴,会使词发生相应不等的屈折变化。随着语言逐步演变,格会发生合并(如古希腊语里方位格和与格合并),这种现象称为语形融合[1]。在更正式的定义里面,语法格是“一种根据独立名词成分与中心词的关系类型,标记这些名词成分的系统”[2]:p.1,故语法格是一种词法学上的概念,应当跟语义学上的语义格(也称语义角色、题元角色)区分开来。如拉丁语里数个语义格可以共用一个语法格。拥有语法格的语言通常语序较为自由,且其语序不表示语义格。 常见的格包括主格、宾格、与格和属格。此外,一些语言拥有庞大的格系统,如古希腊语、亚美尼亚语、阿萨姆语、巴斯克语、德语、冰岛语、拉丁语、梵语、泰米尔语、藏语,波罗的-斯拉夫语族、高加索语系的大部分语言,突厥语族和乌拉尔语系等,它们的格系统涵盖了名词、代词、限定词等众多词类,通常通过添加后缀实现。不同语言有不等数量的格:世界语有2个,德语和冰岛语有4个,罗马尼亚语有5个,拉丁语、俄语和土耳其语至少有6个,亚美尼亚语、捷克语、拉脱维亚语、立陶宛语、波兰语、塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语和乌克兰语有7个,梵语和泰米尔语有8个,爱沙尼亚语有14个,芬兰语有15个,匈牙利语有18个,而高加索语系的采兹语(Tsez language)甚至拥有64个格。 现代汉语的所有词类都不会发生屈折变化[3],所以在严格的语法格角度来看,汉语没有格系统(已在发展过程中退化消失)。而现代英语已经丢失了大部分的格系统,仅在人称代词主格(I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who, whoever)、宾格(me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom, whomever)和属格(my, mine; your, yours; his; her, hers; its; our, ours; their, theirs; whose; whosever[4])中保留了简化形式,如 I kicked him 或 He cheated me。在格较少的语言里面,很多格关系是通过介词来实现的,如英语的介词短语 (kick) with (his) foot 或中文的“用脚(踢)”,在俄语里面就用“脚”的工具格 (удар) ногой 表示,而在古希腊语里面则将 πούς 连同定冠词一起变为与格τῷ ποδί。
宾格 宾格(拉丁语:casus accusativus, 英语:accusative case,缩写: acc),又称对格、受格,德语和俄语语法称之为第四格,表示一个动词直接宾语的名词或一个前置词的宾语。 主宾格语言有宾格,其中包括拉丁语、希腊语、德语、俄语、芬兰语、维吾尔语、蒙古语、满语、土耳其语、冰岛语、古典阿拉伯语、波兰语、匈牙利语、捷克语、斯洛伐克语、克罗地亚语、塞尔维亚语、阿尔巴尼亚语、羌语、锡伯语、鄂伦春语、赫哲语、韩语和藏语(通过变化施动者为具格而间接体现宾格)等等。世界语也用名词变格表达宾格。 不通过变格体现宾格的语言,则会使用虚词和语序来表达这个意义。例如:汉语, 英语、荷兰语、法语、意大利语、西班牙语、葡萄牙语、泰语、越南语等等。 例如,名词词尾变化较少的英语,在少数一些代词中存在宾格(例如whom是who的宾格形式;him是he的宾格形式)。但是在英文的名词中,主格和宾格形式完全一致,没有任何变化,因此必须通过“SVO”的结构,区分主语和宾语。德语或拉丁语就不需要这样。 举例来说,“The hunter kills the tiger.(猎人杀死老虎。)”与“The tiger kills the hunter.(老虎杀死猎人。)”此二句中,主语及宾语完全是由语序的正反区别的(和汉语一致),因此这两句的主宾相反是因为语序相反造成的。 以德语举例,“Der Jäger tötet den Tiger.”与“Der Tiger tötet den Jäger.”(语意同上)此二句中,主语及宾语是由名词的变格(在此二句中体现在冠词上)区别的,因此这两句的主宾相反不是因为语序相反造成的,而是名词的格位不同造成的。因为在德语中,将这两句话颠倒,意思也完全不变(和汉语相反):“Den Tiger tötet der Jäger.”与“Den Jäger tötet der Tiger.”这两句话的意思分别和前述两句话意义相同。 在英语里,who / whom和he / him在不仅仅是主格和宾格的关系,也是主格和与格的关系(例如:“I gave him the present.”);在古英语中有很明显的区分,him是与格,hine是宾格,这个双重性使得很多学习英语的学生没有意识到英语中宾格和与格的不同。
属格 属格(拉丁语:casus genitivus,英语:genitive case,俄语:роди́тельный паде́ж,缩写: gen),亦称所有格、领格、生格,德语和俄语语法称之为第二格,是指名词的语法上的格。属格表示一个名词的所属,例如一个名词提及的对象拥有其它的一些属性。有格范畴的语言一般都有属格,例如:拉丁语、希腊语、德语、俄语、芬兰语、梵语、蒙古语、藏语等等。 一个普遍的误解是在英语中只存在一个以“'s”结尾表示所属的属格。然而,语言学家已经表明英语的所有格完全不是一个格,而是一个独立的词并且在书写和发音上都不是前一个词的一部分,这可以有下面这个句子表明:The King of Sparta's wife was called Helen.(斯巴达国王的妻子叫做海伦。)如果“'s”是属格,那么“妻子”(wife)就属于“斯巴达”(Sparta),但是“'s”并不是只表示“斯巴达”(Sparta),而是表示“斯巴达国王”(King of Sparta)。 上面这个例子并不表明英语没有自己的属格;但是它现在已经发展成为另一个形式。在古英语中,ban的属格形式是banes。后来在现代英语中,这个发展成为了使用“'s”表示的“bone's”。在18世纪,人们对此的解释是撇号代替了一个属格代词,就像“the King's horse”是“the King, his horse”的缩写。但是这个解释是不正确的。人们更相信是撇号代替了古英语中的“e”。 在克丘亚语中,由在词尾加上词缀p或pa来表示属格,比如Inti(太阳)的属格就是Intip(太阳的)。 在天文学上,知道星座拉丁文名字的属格形式是重要的,因为在命名恒星的时候都会用到它们。在拜耳命名法中,我们会以一颗星所处星座名称的属格再加上一希腊字母来为它命名。例如,双子座的拉丁名Gemini的属格形式是Geminorum,那么按照命名法,双子座中最亮的星北河二(Castor)又叫做αGeminorum。参看恒星命名法。
Konstantin Rodzaevsky Konstantin Vladimirovich Rodzaevsky ( ru. Константин Владимирович Родзаевский) (August 11, 1907 - August 30, 1946) was the leader of the Russian Fascist Party, which he led in exile from Manchuria. Far Eastern Fascism Born in Blagoveshchensk (across the Amur from China) in a family of the Siberian middle-class, he fled the Soviet Union for Manchuria in 1925. In Harbin, Rodzaevsky entered the law academy and joined the Russian Fascist Organization. On May 26, 1931, he became the Secretary General of the newly created Russian Fascist Party; in 1934 the Party amalgamated with the Russian Fascist Organization, Rodzaevsky becoming its leader. He modeled himself on Benito Mussolini, and also used the Swastika as one of the symbols of the movement. Rodzaevsky collected around himself personally selected Bodyguards, and used symbolism of the former Russian Empire along with Russian nationalist symbols; like the Italian Blackshirts, the Russian Fascists wore black uniforms with black crossed belts; they were armed with weapons obtained from Japan's Imperial Japanese Army. They created an international organization of White émigrés with a central office in Harbin, the "Russian Far East Moscow", and links in twenty-six nations around the world. The most important of these international posts was in New York City. Manchukuo at the official celebration in the region. The fascists installed a great swastika of neon light at their branch in Manzhouli ("Manchouli"), at least 3km from the Soviet border. It was kept on all day and night to provide a show of power against the Soviet government. Rodzaevsky awaited the day when, leaving these signs on the Russian border, he would lead the White Anti-Soviet forces, joining White General Kislistin and Japanese forces, into battle to "liberate" the Soviet Union. Their main military acts involved the training of Asano Detachment, the all ethnic-Russian special forces in the Kwantung Army, organized for carrying out sabotage against Soviet forces in case of any Japanese invasion of Siberia and Russian Far East areas; Japan was apparently interested in creating a White Russian state in Outer Manchuria. World War II and execution During World War II, Rodzaevsky tried to launch an open struggle against Bolshevism, but Japanese authorities limited the RFP’s activities to acts of sabotage in the Soviet Union. A notorious anti-Semite, Rodzaevsky published numerous articles in the party newspapers "Our way" and "The Nation"; he was also the author of the brochure "Judas’ End" and the book "Contemporary Judaisation of the World or the Jewish Question in the XX Century". At the end of the war, Rodzaevsky began to believe that the Soviet regime under Joseph Stalin was evolving into a nationalist one. He gave himself up to Soviet authorities in Kharbin in 1945, with a letter that shows striking similarities with the doctrines of National Bolshevism: :"I issued a call for an unknown leader, ... capable of overturning the Jewish government and creating a new Russia. I failed to see that, by the will of fate, of his own genius, and of millions of toilers, Comrade J V Stalin, the leader of the peoples, had become this unknown leader". He returned to Russia, where he was promised freedom and a job in one of the Soviet newspapers. Instead, he was arrested, tried and sentenced to be shot; he was executed in a Lubyanka prison cellar. References * "The Russian Fascists: Tragedy and Farce in Exile, 1925-1945" by John J. Stephan ISBN 0-06-014099-2
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