完整题目: Business Communication and the Forms of Business Communication ( 那题目写不下= =.) 有30页呢..全整理了.. 给我认真看...嘿嘿

( 因为是正文..所以第一章是Introduction 我不写了. 从第二章开始) II． Fundamental of Business WritingLike Home Depot founders Marcus and Blank, you’ll face a variety of communication assignments in your career, both oral and written. Some of your tasks will be routine, needing little more than jotting down a few sentences on paper or keyboarding a brief e-mail message. The number of business message id increasing daily, each one competing for your audience’s attention. So your messages must be livelier, easier to read, more concise, and more interesting than ever before.

2.1 Adaptation and the Selection2.1.1 The Basic Need For AdaptationThe study of clear writing logically begins with adaptation. By adaptation means fitting the message to the specific reader. Obviously, readers do not all have the same ability to understand a message. They do not all have the same vocabulary, the same knowledge of the subject, or the same mentality. Thus, to communicate clearly you first should know the person with whom you wish to communicate. You should form your message to fit that person’s mind. This approach not only helps you communicate but also is the basis of good business etiquette. Making your message easy to understand is simply good business manners.

2.1.2 Technique of AdaptingIn many business situations, adapting to your reader means writing on a level lower than the one you would normally use. For example, you will sometimes need to communicate with people whose educational level is below your own. Or you may need to communicate with people of your educational level who simply do not know much about the subject of your message. To illustrate, assume that you need to write a message to a group of less-educated workers. You know that their vocabularies are limited. If you do not, you will not communicate. On the other hand, if you had to write the same message to a group of highly educated people, you would have a wider choice of words. These people have larger vocabularies than the first group. In either case, however, you would select words that the intended readers understand.2.1.3 Governing Role of AdaptationThe preceding discussion shows that adaptation is basis to communication. In fact, it is so basis that you will need to apply it to all the writing and speaking instructions in the pages ahead. For example, much of what will be said about writing technique will stress simplicity—using simple words, short sentences, and short paragraphs. You will need to think of simplicity in terms of adaptation. Specifically, you will need to keep in mind that what is simple for another. Only if you keep in mind the logical use of adaptation will you fully understand the intended meaning of the writing instructions.

2.1.4 Suggestions For Selecting WordsA major part of adaptation is selecting the right words. These are the words that communicate best—that have correct and clear meanings in the reader’s mind.Selecting the right words depends on your ability to use language, your knowledge of the reader, and your good judgment. Few hard-and-fast rules apply. Still, you should keep in mind the suggestions presented in the following paragraphs. As you review them, remember that you must use them with good judgment. You must consider them in light of the need to adapt the message to your reader or readers.As you will see, most of the suggestions support simplicity in writing. This approach is justified by three good reasons. The first is that many of us tend to write at too difficult a level. Instead of being ourselves, we change character when we write. Rather than being friendly, normal people, we become cold and stiff. We work to use big words and complex structures. Winston Churchill referred to this tendency when he made his classic remark:” Little men use big words; big men use little words.” We would do well to follow the example of this big man.The second reason for simplicity is that the writer usually knows the subject of the message better than the reader. Thus, the two are not equally equipped to communicate on the matter. If the writer does not work at reducing the message to the reader’s level, communication will be difficult.The third reason for simplicity is that convincing research supports it. According to the readability research of such experts as Gunning, Dale, Chall, and Flesch, writing slightly below the reader’s level of understanding communicates best. 2.1.5 Use Familiar WordsThe foremost suggestion for word selection is to use familiar words. These are the everyday words—the words with sharp and clear meanings in the mind. Because words that are familiar to some people may be unfamiliar to others, you will need to select familiar words with care. You have no choice but to rely on your judgment.Specifically, using familiar words means using the language that most of us use in everyday conversation. We should avoid the stiff, more difficult words that do not communicate so precisely or quickly.

2.1.6 Choose Short WordsAccording to studies of readability, short words generally communicate better than long words. Of course, part of the explanation is that short words tend to be familiar words. But there is another explanation: A heavy use of long words—even long words that are understood—leaves an impression of difficulty that hinders communication.The suggestion that short words be chosen does not mean that all short words are easy and long words are hard. Many exceptions exist. Few people know such long words such one-syllable words as gybe, verd, and id. Even children know such long words as hippopotamus, automobile, and bicycle. On the whole, however, word length and word difficulty are related. Thus, you should concentrate on short words and use long words with caution. Use a long word only when you think your readers know it.

2.2. Construction of Clear Sentences2.2.1 Emphasis on Short SentencesWriting simpler sentences largely means writing shorter sentences. Readability research tells us that the more words and the more relationships there are in a sentence, the greater is the possibility for misunderstanding. Apparently, the mind can hold only so much information at one time. Thus, to give it too much information is to risk miscommunication.What constitutes a short, readable sentence is related to the reader’s ability. Readability studies show that writing intended to communicate with the middle-level adult reader should average about 1-18 words per sentence. For more advanced readers, the average may be higher. For less advanced readers, it should be lower.Our emphasis on short sentences does not mean that you should use all short sentences. In fact, you should avoid overusing them. The overuse of short sentences results in a choppy effect and suggests primer simplicity. You should use moderately long sentences occasionally. They are sometimes useful in subordinating information and in increasing interest by adding variety. And sometimes the information needed to convey a thought requires a long sentence. Even so, you should take care to not make the long sentences excessively long. Always you should make certain that they are clear. 2.2.2 Giving the Sentences UnityGood sentences have unity. For a sentence to have unity, all of its parts must combine to form one clear thought. In other words, all the things put in a sentence should have a good reason for being together. Violations of unity in sentence construction fall into three categories: (1) unrelated ideas, (2) excessive detail, and (3) illogical construction.2.2.3 Arranging Sentences for ClarityAs you know, various rules of grammar govern the structure of sentences. You know, for example, that modifying words must follow a definite sequence—that altering the sequence changes meaning. “A Venetian blind” means one thing. “A blind Venetian” means quite another. Long-established rules of usage determine the meaning.

2.3.4 Making Good Use of Topic SentencesOne good way of organization paragraphs is to use topic sentences. The topic sentences express the main ideas of a paragraph, and the remaining sentences build around and support it. In a sense, the topic sentences serve as a headline for the paragraph, and all the other sentences supply the story. Not every paragraph must have a topic sentence. Some paragraphs, for example, introduce ideas, relate succeeding items, or present an assortment of facts that lead to no conclusion. The central thought of such paragraphs is difficult to put into a single sentence. Even so, you should use topic sentences whenever you can. You should use them especially in writing reports that discuss a number of topics and subtopics. Using topic sentences forces you to find then central idea of each paragraph and helps you check paragraph unity.2.3.5 Leaving out Unnecessary DetailYou should include in your paragraphs only the information needed. The chances are that you have more information than the reader needs. Thus, a part of your communication task to select what you need and discard what you do not need.What you need, of course, is a matter of judgment. You can judge best by putting yourself in your reader’s place. Ask yourself questions such as these: How will the information be used? What information will be used? What will not be used? Then make your decision. If you follow this procedure, you will probably leave out much that you originally intended to use.

III． Building GoodwillGoodwill smooths the challenges of business and administration. Companies have long been aware that treating customers well pays off in more sales and higher profits. Government organizations now realize that they need citizen support—goodwill—to receive funding. Goodwill is important in internal as well as external documents. More and more organizations are realizing that treating employees well is financially wise as well as ethically sound.You-attitude, positive emphasis, and bias-free language are three ways to help build goodwill. Writing that shows you-attitude speaks from the reader’s point of view, not selfishly from the writer’s. Positive emphasis means focusing on the positive rather than the negative aspects of a situation. Bias-free language is language that does not discriminate against people on the basis on sex, physical condition, race, age, or any other category. All three help you achieve your purposes and make your messages friendlier, more persuasive, more professional, and more humane.

3.1You-AttitudePutting what you want to say in you-attitude is a crucial step both in thinking about the reader’s needs and in communicating your concern to the reader.3.1.1 How to Create You-AttitudeYou-attitude is a style of writing that looks at things from the reader’s point of view, emphasizing what the reader wants to know, respecting the reader’s intelligence, and protecting the reader’s ego. To apply you-attitude, use the following five techniques:◆Talk abut the reader, not abut yourself.◆Refer to the reader’s request or order specifically.◆Don’t talk about feeling, except to congratulate or offer sympathy.◆In positive situation, use you more often than I. Use we when it includes the reader.◆In negative situations, avoid the word you. Protect the reader’s ego. Use passive verbs and impersonal expressions to avoid assigning blame.Many of the you-attitude revisions are longer than the sentences lacking you-attitude. You-attitude sentences have more information, so they are often longer. They are not wordy, however. Wordiness means having more words than the meaning requires. We can add information and still keep the writing tight.◆Talk about the reader, not about yourself.◆Refer to the reader’s request or order specifically.◆Don’t talk about feeling except to congratulate or offer sympathy.◆In positive situations, use you more often than I. Use we when it includes the reader.◆In negative situation, avoid the word you. Protect the reader’s ego. Use passive verbs and impersonal expressions to avoid assigning blame.

3.2 Positive EmphasisSome negatives are necessary. When you have bad news to give the reader—announcements of layoffs, product defects and recalls, price increases—straightforward negatives build credibility. Sometimes negatives are needed to make people take a problem seriously. In some message, such as disciplinary notices and negative performance appraisals, your purpose is to deliver a rebuke with no alternative. Even here, avoid insults or global attacks on the reader’s integrity or sanity. Being honest about the drawbacks of a job reduces turnover. And sometimes negatives create a “reverse psychology” that makes people look favorably at your product. Rent-a –Wreck is thriving. But in most situations, it’s better to be positive. Positive emphasis is a way of looking at things. You can create positive emphasis with the words, information, organization, and layout you choose.◆Create positive emphasis by using the following five techniques:◆Avoid negative words and words with negative connotations.◆State information positively. Focus on what the reader can do rather than on what you won’t or can’t let the reader do.◆Justify negative information by giving a reason or linking it to a reader benefit.◆If the negative is truly unimportant, omit it.◆Put the negative information in the middle and present it compactly.

3.3 Tone, Power, and PolitenessTone is the implied attitude of the writer toward the reader. If the words of a document seem condescending or rude, tone is a problem. Tone is a problem. Tone is tricky because it interacts with power: the words that might seem friendly from a superior. Norms for politeness are cultural and generational. Language that is acceptable within one group may be unacceptable if used by someone outside the group. The desirable tone for business writing is businesslike but not stiff, friendly but not phony, confident but not arrogant, polite but not groveling. The following guidelines will help you achieve the tone you want.◆ Use courtesy titles for people outside your organization whom you don’t know well. ◆ Be aware of the power implications of the words you use.◆ When the stakes are low, be straightforward. ◆ When you must give bad news, consider hedging your statement.3.4. Reducing Bias in Business Communication Everything we do in good business communication attempts to build goodwill. Bias-free language and bias-free visuals help sustain the goodwill we work so hard to create.Bias-free language is language that does not discriminate against people on the bias of sex, physical condition, race, age, or any other category. It includes all readers, helps to sustain goodwill, is fair and friendly, and complies with the law. Bias-free language and visuals are also profitable.Check to be sure that your language is nonsexist, nonracist, and nonagist. When you talk about people with disabilities or diseases, talk about the people, not the condition. When you produce newsletters or other documents with photos and illustrations, choose a sampling of the whole population, not just part of it.

IV．Understand Nonverbal CommunicationThe most basic form of communication is nonverbal communication: all the cues, gestures, facial expressions, spatial relationships, and attitudes toward time that enable people to communicate without words. Nonverbal communication differs from verbal methods in terms of intent and spontaneity. You generally think about verbal messages, if only for a moment. However, when you communicate nonverbally, you sometimes do so unconsciously—you don’t mean to raise an eyebrow or to blush.

4.1 The Importance of Nonverbal CommunicationActions actually do speak louder than words. In fact, most people can deceive others much more easily with words then they can with their bodies. Words are relatively easy to control; body language, facial expressions, and vocal characteristics are not. By paying attention to a person’s nonverbal cues, you can detect deception or affirm a speaker’s honesty.Also, nonverbal communication is efficient. When you have a conscious purpose, you can often achieve it more economically with a gesture than with words. A wave of the hand, a pat o the back, a wink—all are streamlined expressions of thought. Even so, nonverbal communication usually blends with speech, carrying part of the message to augment, reinforce, and clarify the spoken word.4.2 The Type of Nonverbal Communication The thousands of forms of nonverbal communication can be grouped into some general categories. Just remember, the interpretation of these nonverbal signals varies from culture to culture.

4.2.1 Facial Expression Your face is the primary site for expression your emotions; it reveals both the type and the intensity of your feelings.4.2.2 Gesture and PostureBy moving your body, you can express both specific and general message, some voluntary and some involuntary.4.2.3 Vocal CharacteristicsLike body language, your voice carries both intentional and unintentional messages.4.2.4 Personal AppearancePeople respond to others on the basis of their physical appearance.4.2.5 Touching BehaviorTouch is an important vehicle for conveying warmth, comfort, and reassurance.4.2.6 Use of Time and SpaceLike touch, time and space can be used to assert authority.

4.3 Ways to Improve Your Nonverbal CommunicationWhen communicating orally, pay attention to your nonverbal cues, and avoid giving others conflicting signals. You can improve your nonverbal communication by following these tips:◆ Avoid giving conflicting signals.◆ Be as honest as possible in communicating your emotions.◆ Smile genuinely. Faking a smile is obvious to observers.◆ Maintain the eye contact your audience expects.◆ Be aware of your posture and of the gestures you use.◆ Try to use appropriate vocal signals while minimizing unintentional messages.◆ Imitate the appearance of the people you want to impress.◆ Respect your audience’s comfort zone.◆ Adopt a handshake that matches your personality and intention.◆ Be aware of varying attitudes toward time.◆ Use touch only when appropriate.◆ Be aware that people may give false nonverbal cues.Keep in mind that few gestures convey meaning in and of themselves; they must be interpreted in clusters, and they should reinforce your words, not replace them. You’ll have plenty of practice with nonverbal communication in meetings, whether you are leading or participating.

5.1.3 Social Difference In any culture, rules of social etiquette may be formal or informal. Formal rules are the specifically taught “rights” and “wrongs” of how to behave in common social situations, such as table manners at meals. In contrast, informal social rules are more difficult to identify and are usually learned by watching how people behave and then imitating that behavior. Although in a country, it is home to millions of people having different religions and values. Such social values are apparent in the way cultures recognize status, define manners, and think about time.Differing Attitudes Toward Status Cultures dictate how people show respect and signify rank. For example, people in the Unite States show respect by addressing top managers as “Mr. Roberts” or “Ms. Gutierrez.” However, people in China address businesspeople according to their official titles, such as “President” or “Manager”.Differing Attitudes toward Manners What is polite in one culture may be considered rude in another. In Arab countries it’s impolite to take gifts to a man’s wife, but it’s acceptable to take gifts to his children. In Germany giving a woman a red rose is considered a romantic invitation—People from different cultures may misread an intentional nonverbal signal, may overlook the signal entirely, or may assume that a meaningless gesture is significant. Inappropriate if you’re trying to establish a business relationship with her.Differing Attitudes toward Time Conducting business entails schedules, deadlines, and appointments, but these matters are regarded differently from culture to culture. German and U.S executives see time as a way to plan the business day efficiently. But executives from Latin America and Asia see time as more flexible.

5.2 Improving Communication across CulturesOnce you can recognize cultural elements and overcome ethnocentrism, you’re ready to focus directly on your intercultural communication skills. To communicate more effectively with people from other cultures, you need to overcome language barriers, study other cultures, develop effective written skills, and develop effective oral skills.5.2.1 Overcome Language BarriersBy choosing specific words to communicate, you signal that you are a member of a particular culture or subculture and that you know the code. The nature of your code—your language and vocabulary—imposes its own barriers on your message. Barriers also exist because words can be interpreted in more than one way. The barriers become greater still when you’re communicating across cultures. You must be able to communicate effectively both with people who speak English as a second language and with people who don’t speak your language at all.

5.2.1.1 Breaking through ESL Barriers Of the many millions of people who use English as a second language, some are extremely fluent, and others have only an elementary command. When dealing with those less fluent in your own language, you may miss a few subtleties, but you are still able to communicate. Even so, don’t assume that the other person understands everything you say. Your message can be mangled by slang and idioms, by local accents, and by vocal variations.Avoid Using Slang and Idioms Never translate word for word. They are idiomatic—constructed with phrases that mean more then the sum of their literal parts. When speaking to people less fluent in your language, try to choose words carefully to convey only their most specific denotative meaning. Use words that have singular rather than multiple meaning.Pay Attention to Local Accents and Pronunciation Even when people speak your language, you may have a hard time understanding their pronunciation. People always make mistakes in pronunciation.Be Aware of Vocal VariationsSome people use their voices differently from culture to culture. Russian speakers tend to use a flat, level tone, so to some U.S. listeners they sound bored or rude.

5.2.1.2 Breaking through Foreign Language BarriersEven though English is widely spoken in the global business marketplace, the language of business is the language of the customer. Increasingly, that language may not be English. When communicating with people who don’t speak your language at all, you have three options: You can learn their language, use an intermediary or a translator, or teach tem your language. However you choose to overcome language barriers, remember that effective communication requires a major commitment.5.2.2 Study Other CultureLearning all you can about a particular culture is a good way to figure out how to send and receive intercultural messages effectively. Read books and articles about these cultures, and talk to people who have done business with members of these cultures. Concentrate on learning something about each culture’s history, religion, politics, values, and customs. Find out about a country’s subcultures, especially its business subculture, and any special rules or protocol. Studying culture is especially important if you interact with people from a variety of cultures or subcultures.5.2.3 Develop Effective Intercultural SkillsOnly after you’ve studied other cultures can you truly begin to develop effective intercultural skills. There’re two skills you must remember and learn.Improve Your Written Skills ◆Use plain English.◆Be clear.◆Avoid slang and idioms.◆Be brief.◆Use short paragraphs.Improve Your Oral Skills◆Try to eliminate noise.◆Look for feedback.◆Rephrase your sentence when necessary.◆Clarify your true intent with repetition and examples.◆Don’t talk down to the other person.◆Use objective, accurate language.◆Listen carefully and patiently.◆Adapt your conversation style to the other person’s.◆Clarify what will happen next.In short, take advantage of the other person’s presence to make sure that your message is getting across and that you understand his or her message too.