很感兴趣，把wiki上所有Evolutionary biology的文章做了个PDF，300多页。慢慢看CZ那里就是在胡搅，链接http://post.baidu.com/f?kz=153076154一帮人是受毒害过深的另一帮是思维完全不着边际的毫无科学精神的人，估计大妈居多当然也有些人不错，只是很少中国人现在被教育的没有科学精神，肆意无条件否定或认同一切

我就不全文转了摘一些重要的国内wiki被封了，想要的找我倒不是说wiki有多专业，但至少wiki是公正的，中立的，也兼有浅显易懂和精确专业

Evolutionary biology is a sub-field of biology concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change, multiplication, and diversity over time. One who studies evolutionary biology is known as an evolutionary biologist, or less formally, an evolutionist.

古生物学证据It is possible to find out how a particular group of organisms evolved by arranging its fossil records in a chronological sequence. Such a sequence can be determined because fossils are mainly found in sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock is formed by layers of silt or mud on top of each other; thus, the resulting rock contains a series of horizontal layers, or strata. Each layer contains fossils which are typical for a specific time period during which they were made. The lowest strata contain the oldest rock and the earliest fossils, while the highest strata contain the youngest rock and more recent fossils.A succession of animals and plants can also be seen from fossil records. Fossil evidence supports the theory that organisms tend to progressively increase in complexity. By studying the number and complexity of different fossils at different stratigraphic levels, it has been shown that older fossil-bearing rocks contain fewer types of fossilized organisms, and they all have a simpler structure, whereas younger rocks contain a greater variety of fossils, often with increasingly complex structures.这段说的很好理解，沉积岩是分层的，越往下面越古老。那么，下层的沉积岩发现的生命体都只有简单的结构，越往上面越复杂。简单的道理，沉积岩由深至浅，对应时间由古老至现代，对应生物复杂性由简单到复杂。这个证据可以支持生命体的复杂性是趋向于日益增多的

Throughout the fossil record, many species which appear at an early stratigraphic level disappear at a later level. This is interpreted in evolutionary terms as indicating the times at which species originated and became extinct. Geographical regions and climatic conditions have varied throughout the Earth's history. Since organisms are adapted to particular environments, the constantly changing conditions favoured species which adapted to new environments through the mechanism of natural selection.自然选择

化石证据的局限性The fossil record is an important source for scientists when tracing the evolutionary history of organisms. However, because of limitations inherent in the record, there are not fine scales of intermediate forms between related groups of species. This lack of continuous fossils in the record is a major limitation in tracing the descent of biological groups. Furthermore, there are also much larger gaps between major evolutionary lineages. These gaps are often referred to as "missing links".化石断层可能的原因 * In general, the probability that an organism becomes fossilized after death is very low; * Some species or groups are less likely to become fossils because they are soft-bodied; * Some species or groups are less likely to become fossils because they live (and die) in conditions that are not favourable for fossilization to occur in; * Many fossils have been destroyed by land movements and erosion; * Some fossil remains are complete, but most are fragmentary; * Some evolutionary change occurs in populations at the limits of a species' ecological range, and as these populations are likely to be small, the probability of fossilization is lower (see punctuated equilibrium); * Similarly, when environmental conditions change, the population of a species is likely to be greatly reduced, such that any evolutionary change induced by these new conditions is less likely to be fossilized; * Most fossils convey information about external form, but little about how the organism functioned; * Using present-day biodiversity as a guide, this suggests that the fossils unearthed represent only a fraction of the large number of species of organisms that lived in the past.

解剖学证据Comparative study of the anatomy of groups of animals or plants reveals that certain structural features are basically similar. For example, the basic structure of all flowers consists of sepals, petals, stigma, style and ovary; yet the size, colour, number of parts and specific structure are different for each individual species.If widely separated groups of organisms are originated from a common ancestry, they are expected to have certain basic features in common. The degree of resemblance between two organisms should indicate how closely related they are in evolution:● Groups with little in common are assumed to have diverged from a common ancestor much earlier in geological history than groups which have a lot in common;● in deciding how closely related two animals are, a comparative anatomist looks for structures which, though they may serve quite different functions in the adult, are fundamentally similar, suggesting a common origin. Such structures are described as homologous; and● in cases where the similar structures serve different functions in adults, it may be Evidence of evolution - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia necessary to trace their origin and embryonic development, to look for more similarities derived from a common ancestor.When a group of organisms share a homologous structure which is specialized to perform a variety of functions in order to adapt different environmental conditions and modes of life are called adaptive radiation. The gradual spreading of organisms with adaptive radiation is known as divergent evolution.例子：五指的翼，蹄，爪，手，脚等；昆虫的口器

退化器官A further aspect of comparative anatomy is the presence of vestigial organs. Organs that are smaller and simpler in structure than corresponding parts in the ancestral species are called vestigial organs. They are usually degenerated or underdeveloped. The existence of vestigial organs can be explained in terms of changes in the environment or modes of life of the species. Those organs are thought to be functional in the ancestral species but have now become unnecessary and non-functional. Examples are the vestigial hind limbs of whales, the haltere (vestigial hind wings) of flies and mosquitos, vestigial wings of flightless birds such as ostriches, and the vestigial leaves of some xerophytes (e.g. cactus) and parasitic plants (e.g. dodder).

比较胚胎学证据Comparative embryology shows how embryos start off looking the same. As they develop, their similarities slowly decrease until they take the form of their particular class.For example, adult vertebrates are diverse, yet their embryos are quite similar at very early stages. Gill slits still form in early embryos of reptiles, birds, and mammals. In fish embryos, a two-chambered heart, some veins, and parts of arteries develop and persist in adult fishes. The same structures form early in human embryos but do not persist as such in adults.早期胚胎有很多相似之处，随着成长逐渐分道扬镳

比较生理学和生物化学的证据A classic example of biochemical evidence for evolution is the variance of the protein Cytochrome c in living cells. The variance of cytochrome c of different organisms is measured in the number of differing amino acids, each differing amino acid being a result of a base pair substitution, a mutation. If each differing amino acid is assumed to be the result of one base pair substitution, it can be calculated how long ago the two species diverged by multiplying the number of base pair substitutions by the estimated time it takes for a substituted base pair of the cytochrome c gene to be successfully passed on. For example, if the average time it takes for a base pair of the cytochrome c gene to mutate is N years, the number of amino acids making up the cytochrome c protein in monkeys differ by one from that of humans, this leads to the conclusion that the two species diverged N years ago.精典例证，不同器官的细胞色素C的变种是由不同氨基酸的数目衡量的，每种不同的氨基酸是碱基对突变的结果。组成细胞色素C蛋白的氨基酸数目，可以判断两个物种从什么时候开始分离。Comparison of the DNA sequences allows organisms to be grouped by sequence similarity, and the resulting phylogenetic trees are typically congruent with traditional taxonomy, and are often used to strengthen or correct taxonomic classifications. Sequence comparison is considered a measure robust enough to be used to correct erroneous assumptions in the phylogenetic tree in instances where other evidence is scarce.Genetic sequence evidence thus allows inference and quantification of genetic relatedness between humans and other apes.[2][3] The sequence of the 16S rRNA gene, a vital gene encoding a part of the ribosome, was used to find the broad phylogenetic relationships between all extant life.物种间的相似性可以被量化，这个有意思，就是靠比较基因序列的相似性。比如人和黑猩猩有1.2%偏离，就是不同的意思了。和大猩猩有1.6%，和狒狒有6.6%。

The proteomic evidence also supports the universal ancestry of life. Vital proteins, such as the ribosome, DNA polymerase, and RNA polymerase are found in the most primitive bacteria to the most complex mammals. The core part of the protein is conserved across all lineages of life, serving similar functions.Other overarching similarities between all lineages of extant organisms, such as DNA, RNA, amino acids, and the lipid bilayer, give support to the theory of common descent. The chirality of DNA, RNA, and amino acids is conserved across all known life. As there is no functional advantage to right or left handed molecular chirality, the simplest hypothesis is that the choice was made randomly in the early beginnings of life and passed on to all extant life through common descent.生命诞生之际分子手性就左右都有，现在所有的生物也一样。我估计是指分子结构左旋或者右旋。Molecular evidence also offers a mechanism for large evolutionary leaps and macroevolution. Horizontal gene transfer, the process in which an organism transfers genetic material (i.e. DNA) to another cell that is not its offspring, allows for large sudden evolutionary leaps in a species by incorporating beneficial genes evolved in another species……下面的专业名词太多，线粒体质体真核细胞原核细胞等等等等。就是说分子证据还可以支持大跳跃式进化和宏进化机制。Since metabolic processes do not leave fossils, research into the evolution of the basic cellular processes is done largely by comparison of existing organisms. Many lineages diverged when new metabolic processes appeared, and it is theoretically possible to determine when certain metabolic processes appeared by comparing the traits of the descendants of a common ancestor or by detecting their physical manifestations. As an example, the appearance of oxygen in the earth's atmosphere is linked to the evolution of photosynthesis.细胞进化的研究靠比较现有的器官。新的代谢过程出现，N多同类就开始分道扬镳。理论上根据比较具有共同祖先的后裔的某些特性，通过检查他们的身体特性，可以决定某些代谢活动是什么时间产生的。比如地球大气城中氧气的出现和光合作用的进化有联系。生化这块太专业了。有些东西不好概括基本全翻了……汗

抗生素和杀虫剂抗性证据老套的东西不说了复杂iteration研究的证据iteration一般就是数学上的迭代。这里就是用计算机模拟的过程"It has taken more than five decades, but the electronic computer is now powerful enough to simulate evolution" [9] assisting bioinformatics in its attempt to solve biological problems.Computer science allows the iteration of self changing complex systems to be studied, allowing a mathematically exact understanding of the nature of the processes behind evolution; providing evidence for the hidden causes of known evolutionary events. The evolution of specific cellular mechanisms like spliceosomes that can turn the cell's genome into a vast workshop of billions of interchangeable parts that can create tools that create tools that create tools that create us can be studied for the first time in an exact way.两个例子太专业了不说了。感觉跟原来学进化算法那套差不多的意思，就是用计算机模拟随机自然选择的过程。当然进化算法本身就是借鉴生物进化的原理。当时就觉得挺有意思的。哎，当初怎么不学生物呢。物种形成证据Hawthorn fly山楂蝇？是说北美的这种东西一直是吃山楂的，可19世纪后当苹果被传入北美后产生了一部分吃苹果的山楂蝇。有证据表明有6/13的山楂蝇成熟的比吃苹果的山楂蝇晚，并且没有证据表明他们之间有杂交。进化的证据这块完了，属于最长的几篇之一。